By Captain Matt Episcopo (ret.)
“I’m always willing to learn and adapt, especially with obtaining more accurate interview techniques to become a better officer.” — Patrol Officer C.H.
Law enforcement professionals recognize the critical role communication plays in their work but feel inadequately equipped to handle the interpersonal, cultural and legal challenges they face. While perceptions of their abilities vary, there is a strong sense of inadequacy regarding complex, real-world interactions. Gaps in training, confidence and resources suggest that while communication skills are highly valued, they are not yet at the level required to meet today’s demands.
Throughout 2023 and 2024, law enforcement professionals attended my two-day Interview and Interrogation course, Excellence in Pursuit of the Truth. A majority of attendees participated in courses held in the New England region or along the Eastern Seaboard. Officers attending these courses were asked to complete a pre-course survey to assess their training needs. A total of 201 valid survey responses were analyzed, and this report presents the findings.
About the subjects
Attendees represented a variety of agency types, including police departments, campus and university safety, sheriff’s offices, gaming control boards, the Division of Occupational Safety and Health, the Division of Corrections, game wardens, special investigations units, attorney general’s offices, district attorney’s offices, school resource officers, constables, state police and Amtrak Police.
Respondents were asked to rank their experience on a 1–5 scale (low to high) regarding interviewing various groups. Most reported a medium ranking of 3 across the following categories, with these averages: suspects (2.8), victims (3.22), witnesses (3.2) and children (1.9). This indicates that, overall, this group has less experience interviewing children.
Key interview challenges reported by law enforcement
Survey respondents were asked to identify the biggest challenge they face when conducting interviews in their law enforcement work. The question was deliberately open-ended to allow for a broad range of thoughtful responses. The course teaches law enforcement professionals to interview victims, witnesses, suspects and others.
Nine key challenge themes emerged from the responses:
1. Formulating effective questions
The most frequently reported challenge was the ability to ask the right questions, including open-ended, follow-up and investigative questions. There is a clear need for guidance on question formulation and sequencing.
- “I’ve found myself having to call witnesses and suspects back multiple times to ask the right questions, prolonging the investigation.”
- “Knowing what to ask and how to ask it.”
2. Establishing and maintaining rapport
Officers recognize that rapport is critical to obtaining truthful information but struggle with building trust, particularly with defensive individuals.
- “Getting over the initial hump of persuading the person to agree to speak with law enforcement.”
- “Gaining trust in a victim or suspect who already has a preconceived notion of distrust toward the police.”
3. Detecting deception
Officers want tools to enhance their ability to detect dishonesty while keeping the interview productive. However, the real need is the ability to discern the truth and establish facts without focusing too heavily on deception.
- “When you know someone is lying but don’t know how to ask the question to prove it.”
- “Differentiating between truths and lies.”
4. Structuring interviews effectively
Many officers want to improve their ability to keep interviews organized and ensure they progress logically without stalling or veering off track.
- “Keeping the conversation flowing and natural.”
- “Maintaining a linear structure and asking the right questions.”
5. Building confidence and experience
There is a significant demand for training that builds both skills and self-assurance.
- “Lack of experience. I need tools to feel confident.”
- “Never actually being trained on proper interview techniques.”
6. Overcoming resistance
Officers need strategies to elicit information from uncooperative, defensive or silent individuals.
- “Getting past the initial denials by the suspect.”
- “Finding ways to keep an interview going when it starts to stall.”
7. Managing time constraints
Officers cite limited time due to staffing shortages and heavy caseloads as a major challenge.
- “Time. I conduct my interviews at a patrol level.”
- “Not having the resources and time to conduct proper interviews.”
8. Navigating cultural and language barriers
Many officers lack training on communicating effectively with diverse populations.
- “In [town name], the language barrier and cultural differences make communication challenging.”
- “For example, sometimes a woman just might not want to talk with me, a man.”
9. Balancing legal obligations with rapport-building
Officers struggle with navigating Miranda rights while maintaining rapport.
- “Obtaining Miranda without losing rapport can be difficult in some scenarios.”
Insights from reported challenges
Survey responses reveal a clear gap in training and skill development. Many officers, especially those new to their roles or promoted without formal preparation, feel undertrained in critical areas of communication and interviewing. There’s a gap between expectations of law enforcement roles and the training provided to meet those expectations effectively.
The importance of communication is widely acknowledged. Officers recognize that communication is a cornerstone of their job, whether it involves building rapport, finding the truth or navigating legal protocols. However, there is a lack of confidence in applying these skills, suggesting that communication training is not emphasized or reinforced enough.
Officers also struggle to overcome resistance, build trust and maintain rapport with individuals who may distrust law enforcement or be unwilling to cooperate. This indicates a need for more nuanced training that accounts for modern social dynamics.
Another critical issue is the balance between legal obligations and relationship-building. Navigating Miranda rights while maintaining rapport and preventing an interview from shutting down is a major pain point. Officers require training that integrates legal precision with effective communication strategies.
With the shifting workforce and post-COVID dynamics, many officers acutely feel their inexperience and lack of confidence. Several explicitly mentioned feeling unprepared, with some admitting they had never received formal interview training. This lack of experience exacerbates challenges, leading to anxiety and hesitation that further erodes communication effectiveness. Confidence-building should be an integral part of training.
The survey also highlighted a dangerous misalignment between reality and expectations. Officers are often thrust into high-stakes interviews with limited resources, time or preparation, which contrasts sharply with the complexity of modern policing scenarios. This reflects systemic issues in how law enforcement agencies prepare their personnel. Time-efficient yet effective communication tools are crucial.
Cultural misunderstandings and language barriers were also significant obstacles. Officers often lack the tools to navigate cultural nuances or work with individuals who speak limited or no English, leading to miscommunication, mistrust and unproductive interviews.
Finally, officers expressed a strong desire for advanced and specialized skills. Beyond basic communication, they need modern techniques tailored to evolving investigative and psychological challenges in law enforcement.
Strategic recommendations
To bridge the gap between current training deficiencies and the communication demands of modern law enforcement, agencies must take a multi-faceted approach. Effective solutions should be designed to not only enhance officers’ skill sets but also ensure long-term retention and application of these essential techniques. The following strategic recommendations outline the necessary steps:
Prioritize comprehensive communication training as part of core officer development
- Communication should be treated as a fundamental law enforcement skill, not an ancillary soft skill.
- Training academies must incorporate structured modules on effective questioning, active listening and strategic communication for all new recruits.
- Courses should integrate principles of cognitive interviewing, rapport-building and techniques for overcoming resistance.
Implement scenario-based training for real-world application
- Officers benefit most from hands-on training that simulates high-stakes interviews and interrogations.
- Scenario-based learning should include live role-play exercises, video analysis of real cases and structured feedback from experienced instructors.
- Training programs should provide exposure to interviewing a wide range of individuals, including victims, witnesses, suspects and children, to improve adaptability.
Integrate cultural competency and language training
- Officers must be equipped to navigate language barriers and cultural differences effectively.
- Agencies should offer specialized training in cultural awareness, implicit bias recognition and de-escalation techniques that consider diverse community dynamics.
- Basic proficiency in commonly spoken languages within an officer’s jurisdiction, or access to real-time translation tools, should be prioritized.
Establish continuous learning and refresher courses
- Communication training should not be a one-time event but an ongoing professional development requirement.
- Agencies must provide periodic refresher courses to reinforce best practices, address emerging challenges and introduce advancements in investigative interviewing.
- Creating mentorship programs where experienced officers provide guidance and feedback to junior personnel can help solidify these skills.
Conclusion
The findings from this survey highlight a fundamental issue in law enforcement training: while communication is universally recognized as a crucial skill, officers often feel underprepared to apply it effectively in the field. The challenges they face — ranging from question formulation to overcoming resistance and navigating cultural differences — underscore the urgent need for comprehensive, practical and ongoing training programs.
By prioritizing structured communication training, leveraging technology and fostering continuous learning, agencies can equip officers with the tools they need to conduct effective interviews and interrogations. These improvements will not only enhance investigative outcomes but also strengthen community trust, reduce wrongful convictions and improve officer confidence in high-pressure situations.
About the author
Captain Matt Episcopo (Ret.) is an expert in interview and interrogation, with extensive experience in law enforcement training. A certified police instructor, he is highly regarded for his courses on interview and interrogation, death investigations and leadership.
During his career, he established his agency’s first criminal investigative unit, narcotics K-9 unit and voice stress analyzer program. His honors include the Medal of Honor, Meritorious Service Award and Gallantry Star for Bravery.
Since retiring, he has trained law enforcement, corporate and association groups worldwide. A TEDx speaker and author of How to Gain the Upper Hand: P.O.W.E.R. Tactics That Get Leaders Results, he continues to teach the art and science of effective communication. For more information, visit: https://www.go.mattepiscopo.com/interview-course.