25,500,000
That is the number of women in the United States that have reported completed or attempted rape during their lifetime — 21% of the population, about 1 in every 5 women [1].
Intoxicants can play a significant role in sexual assault. The same study also found that drug-facilitated penetration was experienced by 11% of women at some point in their lives. While women are far more likely to be victims of sexual assault (21% vs. 3%), male victims are more likely to be given drugs without their consent, 49% vs. 28% [1,2].
Public pressure related to the issue has resulted in the state of California passing a law requiring bars to post new warning signs and sell drug detection kits [3]. In Canada, a new provincial forensic toxicology unit has been announced to support police investigating sexual assaults [4]. Both of these announcements have been made within the last year, suggesting that the problem has not been getting any better.
|More: 5 gadgets that alert drinkers to date rape drugs
While we will provide an overview of the use of drugs in sexual assault in this article, there are some important limitations associated with research in this area. First, assaults are frequently unreported (in the U.S., only about 25% of sexual assaults are reported) [5]. Also, the definition of sexual assault as well as drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) varies widely by region. Finally, the source of information regarding intoxicants in sexual assault also varies widely, from self-reports to blood or urine testing [6]. All of these factors can impact the accuracy of information available.
Implications for LEOs and investigators
Calls to investigate sexual assault are accompanied by many considerations. Officer safety, scene and evidence preservation, and victim/witness statements must all be considered while still preserving the rights, dignity and life for all involved. In cases of severe injury, officer involvement may start with basic first aid and managing life-threatening conditions, such as bleeding, which may be the result of either the drug(s) or the assault [9].
In cases where victims may have been administered opioids, officers may need to administer naloxone as part of their mission to preserve life [11].
LEOs are frequently first on scene and a matter of seconds can determine life or death. In the absence of immediate life-threatening conditions, sexual assault requires timely management. The Human Rights Watch identifies the first officer who takes a report from a sexual assault victim’s role as, “address any safety or medical concerns, collect just enough information to establish the elements of the crime, identify potential witnesses and suspect(s), and identify and secure evidence” [12].
One of the big challenges for investigators is identifying which drug (or drugs) may be involved. Establishing timelines is especially useful if the drugs were taken voluntarily. Alcohol is the most common self-reported ingestion and cannabis the second most common voluntarily ingested agent [6].
Involuntary ingestions are trickier. While alcohol remains the most detected agent, these victims are far more likely to have received GHB or Rohypnol [6]. Paramedics are typically the only healthcare providers with access to the scene, giving them access to clues to intoxicants involved that might otherwise be lost. Experienced investigators recognize the value of EMS input and utilize it for its investigative benefits accordingly.
Geography may play a role in which agents are used. For example, worldwide, the United States has some of the highest rates of GHB (6%) and synthetic cathinones (13%) but the lowest rates of MDMA (1%) used in DFSA [7]. In contrast, Canada has the highest prevalence of cocaine use in DFSA (21%) but one of the lowest rates of GHB (1%) [7]. Understanding what is available locally can also help rule in or out numerous other illicit drugs including benzodiazepines (including designer benzodiazepines), oxycodone, ketamine and stimulants, such as methamphetamines [8].
Table: Drug prevalence by country [7]
| Drug category | Highest prevalence countries | Lowest prevalence countries |
| Benzodiazepines and hypnotics | France, Taiwan, China | Italy, U.K. |
| Ethanol | Spain, U.K., Sweden, France, Northern Ireland, Netherlands, New Zealand | China, Italy, U.S., Denmark |
| Amphetamine | Australia, U.S., Spain | Northern Ireland, Italy |
| Methamphetamine | South Africa | |
| MDMA | Spain, Netherlands, Canada | Taiwan, New Zealand, U.S. |
| Analgesics | Australia, Northern Ireland, Canada, U.S., U.K. | |
| Cannabinoids | U.K., New Zealand, U.S., Canada | Taiwan, France, Norway, Sweden, Northern Ireland, the Netherlands, Spain, Italy |
| Cocaine | Spain, Canada | Taiwan, China, New Zealand |
| Antidepressants, antipsychotics | Australia, Canada, Denmark, Spain, U.S., New Zealand | |
| GHB | The Netherlands, U.S., France | U.K., Italy, Canada |
| Antihistamines | South Africa, France, U.S. | U.K. |
Identifying a specific drug(s) ingested by clinical presentation alone can be challenging. Signs and symptoms can be confusing, especially in the face of multiple ingestions. The high rates of alcohol can cause synergistic effects with other agents.
Alcohol, benzodiazepines as well as GHB and its precursor drugs all share a similar mechanism of action: they increase GABA activity. GABA is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter; think about it like a brake pedal for the brain.
Other agents, such as ketamine, antagonize receptors associated with glutamate. Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter; think about it like a gas pedal for the brain.
When these drugs are mixed, the effect can be like stepping on the brake while taking your foot off the gas. This can result in more profound CNS depression and a longer duration of action than when the agents are administered alone [8]. Symptoms can be made more confusing by pre-existing prescription medications, especially those with psychoactive properties, such as analgesics or psychiatric medications. This has been reported in nearly a quarter of DFSA patients [8].
This discussion was limited to the specifics surrounding the role of the LEO and toxicology related to drug-facilitated sexual assault. This is, however, only part of the comprehensive care required for sexual assault, which also includes a trauma-informed care response, care for psychiatric emergencies as well as forensics/legal responsibilities; the details of which are far outside the scope of this article [9].
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rob Schembri is a critical care paramedic with Ornge in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. His 35-year EMS career has encompassed 911 response, aeromedical and tactical paramedicine. Rob has previously taught for Humber College delivering advanced care paramedic instruction which encompassed delivery of classroom, clinical and field education.
Rob’s EMS career intertwined with law enforcement during his tenure as a tactical paramedic and subsequent tactical medical operator instruction with a tactical element based out of Florida. Rob worked as a full-time, sworn police officer with the Peel Regional Police Service (Ontario, Canada), where he held postings in uniform patrol, school resource officer, criminal investigations and intelligence services before retiring in 2022.
Rob holds an undergraduate degree in Justice Studies and is currently pursuing a Master’s of Science in Austere Critical Care from the College of Remote and Offshore Medicine.
References
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- Richer LA, Fields L, Bell S, et al. (2015). Characterizing drug-facilitated sexual assault subtypes and treatment engagement of victims at a hospital-based rape treatment center. “Journal of Interpersonal Violence,” 32(10), 1524–1542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515589567
- California Department of Alcohol Beverage Control. (January 22, 2024). Type 48 Licenses: New Signage and Product Requirements Take Effect July 1, 2024. Available at: https://www.abc.ca.gov/type-48-licenses-new-signage-and-product-requirements-take-effect-july-1-2024/ Retrieved Sept 1, 2024
- La presse Canadienne. (April 30, 2024). Quebec creates forensics unit to help police with date rape drug case. “The Gazette”. Available at: https://montrealgazette.com/news/quebec/quebec-creates-forensics-unit-to-help-police-with-date-rape-drug-cases
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