This article is based on research conducted as a part of the CA POST Command College. It is a futures study of a particular emerging issue of relevance to law enforcement. Its purpose is not to predict the future; rather, to project a variety of possible scenarios useful for planning and action in anticipation of the emerging landscape facing policing organizations.
The article was created using the futures forecasting process of Command College and its outcomes. Managing the future means influencing it — creating, constraining and adapting to emerging trends and events in a way that optimizes the opportunities and minimizes the threats of relevance to the profession.
By Lieutenant Bradley Lindblom
Imagine seeing a sleek black-and-white police vehicle driving down your street without anyone in the driver’s seat. This vehicle has state-of-the-art 360-degree surveillance to capture every license plate in its visual line of sight. On top of it is a nest that contains drone technology and the ability to pinpoint gunfire to specific latitudes and longitudes. This patrol car may be the next wave of transportation and proactive technology for law enforcement, with components already available today.
While the technology is still being refined and perfected, law enforcement should accept the challenge of marrying autonomous vehicle engineering with innovative public safety tools to enhance crime-fighting. The ability to mobilize technology throughout a community brings a cutting-edge approach to proactive policing that not only enhances public safety through mobility but does it at a lower cost than staffing up to do the same job.
Autonomous vehicle technology is coming
In 2021, the worldwide autonomous vehicle industry was valued at U.S. $24 billion, and it is projected to reach $62 billion by 2026. [1] As of January 2024, the California Department of Motor Vehicles has listed three vehicle manufacturers that already have autonomous vehicles (AVs) operating on California roadways under specific weather and conditions. [2] Mercedes Benz USA, Nuro Inc. and Waymo LLC are still in the testing phases of their vehicles for public use, making the idea of an autonomous police fleet less radical than some might imagine.
No law enforcement agency in the United States has deployed an autonomous vehicle for patrol operations; however, in Dubai they have developed a fully electric, self-driving patrol vehicle set to be deployed in late 2024. This vehicle will come equipped with a mounted drone nest, 15 hours of battery life and AI to assist in spotting suspicious behavior. [3] With these innovations, ideas for future technology around autonomous police vehicles are almost limitless. The FBI identified vehicular autonomy as “game-changing” for law enforcement, presenting both a threat and an opportunity to fight crime and terrorism. [4]
New technology, though, is often met with curiosity and fear. Humans do not like change without understanding and having a voice in the decision. Based upon past technology rollouts and the study of humans as it relates to change, the police should prudently plan for community engagement and collaboration with the public in autonomous vehicle rollouts. Former New York City Police Commissioner Keechant Sewell explained in a press conference that their technology should be rolled out in a manner that is “transparent, consistent and always done in close collaboration with the people we serve.” [5]
Autonomous technologies already in use
Vehicular autonomy is merely an extension of systems already in use and supported by the public. Many cities across the United States have automated license plate readers (ALPRs) and city-funded surveillance cameras strategically placed throughout communities. For example, San Pablo in the San Francisco Bay Area has 284 surveillance cameras. They also utilize 84 ALPR cameras. Officers in that community can locate certain vehicles in specific places with license plate data and follow them throughout the city for their investigation. While some cities’ public safety technology systems are robust, they are also static, thus limiting these investigative tools to specific areas. One advancement in police practice, though, is mobile and capable of performing many duties traditionally done by officers in cars.
As of February 2023, 1,500 departments around the country use drones, also known as unmanned aerial systems (UAS). California has 225 police departments for which the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration has issued BVLOS (beyond visual line of sight) waivers, allowing agencies to fly without a human spotter. [6] The benefits of UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles) are being seen wherever they are used. For instance, in 2022 the Elizabeth, New Jersey Police Department drones responded to 1,400 calls for service. Twenty-one percent of these calls were cleared within 90 seconds, versus the four minutes it would formerly take for a patrol unit. [6] It is clear UAVs are here to stay and playing an increasingly vital role for public safety agencies.
ALPRs and UAVs are only a fraction of the complementary technology law enforcement agencies could employ with autonomous vehicles. By 2030, roads in California and elsewhere may be filled with AVs with precision driving, which will transform traditional proactive policing in the form of traffic stops to look vastly different. [7] Imagine, for instance, a suspect vehicle that flees. Law enforcement could capture the car’s data and cite the vehicle’s registered owner or deploy a drone to track it in real time, similar to the way air support operates today using officers and helicopters, only at a fraction of the cost.
In 2018, Motorola patented a concept showing an autonomous vehicle with a built-in fingerprint sensor and a breath analyzer that could identify compliant suspects during traffic stops. [8] An AV similarly equipped could read the suspect’s rights and allow them to contact a lawyer via teleconference. It might offer live translation in the suspect’s preferred language and even issue a court date or accept payment of a bail schedule. [8] These are just two examples of the efficiencies agencies may see in their proactive crime-fighting strategies. Imagine if there was no need for an officer to accompany the car in many crime-fighting capacities, leaving them time to prevent and investigate crime or work on other tasks.
Balancing innovation and privacy
The police are traditionally much more comfortable adopting established technologies than emerging ones. [9] With the rapid advance in public safety technologies in the past decade, though, the police should recognize emerging trends in the space of AV and the accompanying technology opportunities to improve public safety. Although there are a number of advantages to deploying AVs for patrol, privacy advocates caution that the vast amounts of data that may be collected by government agencies using AV is problematic, and the potential security of the systems they will employ is a concern.
Privacy advocates such as the American Civil Liberties Union already caution about the vast amount of data law enforcement agencies collect through ALPR and surveillance. The immense amount of data that could be compromised is troubling. For example, in 2018 the vendor for Customs and Border Protection’s ALPR system was breached, with hackers gaining access to 105,000 license plate images. [10] Privacy concerns are as valid consideration when employing such technology systems.
Managing the challenges
Transitioning a human-driven police fleet into a fleet of AVs brings challenges and unintended consequences. Two of the most serious to consider include cyberattacks and security of the vehicle, and criminal adaptation to AV technology for both the public and the police.
Cyberattacks and security
With any technology comes vulnerabilities to hijacking or attacks from malicious actors. In the past few years, Honda, Nissan, Renault, Tesla and Toyota have been hit with ransomware attacks related to AV creation; only Tesla and Toyota were able to fend the attacks off. [11] In 2021 RAND, in collaboration with the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF), identified high-priority needs for law enforcement interactions with autonomous vehicles. One of the top-tier needs was cybersecurity and communication. [12] However, a lack of general understanding and training regarding cybersecurity and external threats poses a significant problem for the law enforcement community. [13]
Cybersecurity and defense mechanisms are vital to ensure the safety of the vehicle and the public, as well as proper communication to and from the vehicle. In a 2023 study examining the relationship between officers and cybersecurity, industrial engineering expert Shannon Roberts, et al. suggested appropriate training for the police to understand cybersecurity’s impact and promote cybersecurity resiliency in law enforcement settings. [13] Even with anticipated improvement coming, vehicle and technology safety will need to be consistently monitored and evaluated. Law enforcement agencies need to prioritize comprehensive training to safeguard the integrity of AV communication.
Criminal adaptation to autonomous vehicles
Law enforcement agencies constantly adapt their strategies to changes in criminal behavior. A 2024 panel convened by the author to study the impacts of AV for policing believed law enforcement would be behind the curve with autonomous vehicle technology implementation compared to the general public. Criminals and criminal organizations will have ample opportunities to utilize AV technology to commit the same crimes we see today, but maybe with more efficiency and coordination. Exploiting AVs for weapons such as bombs or projectiles are some examples that are provided by the Dawes Centre for Future Crime at University College London. [14] Research suggests that society does not yet understand how criminals might benefit from the use of autonomous vehicle technology. [15]
Weekly, people see large interdictions of contraband smuggling throughout the United States in the media. With some of these stops, information has already been obtained regarding the illegal contents within. Other traffic stops stem solely from intuition or pure luck. If a specific vehicle was driven by autonomy with precision, probable cause stops based upon human decision or mechanical error may be severely limited. With autonomous vehicles, the future may see vehicles traveling long distances without detection or the need for fuel or rest. [16] These are some of the challenges civilian autonomous vehicles may bring to public safety in the future, which means the police should begin to plan today.
The time is now
Law enforcement needs to think about this AV technology and how it can be leveraged to continue successful proactive public safety strategies. A successful approach to exploration and advocacy may involve statewide task forces of police agencies of all sizes. This would also include stakeholders in the AV research and development realm, DMVs and representatives from state government. Implementation could occur within individual agencies to allow for unique community needs. Without these ideas at the forefront of autonomous vehicle technology, agencies’ rollouts may fail. Areas the police should emphasize include working with AV companies on the development of suitable vehicles and advocating for legislation to enable and manage the use of AV for the police.
Partnering with technology and AV companies such as Waymo or Tesla offers a wide variety of benefits. Such partnerships are imperative for the continued growth of law enforcement autonomous fleet programs, as most agencies do not have the technological understanding or funds to research and develop highly complicated systems or codes. With vehicles being manufactured presently, companies like Ford and Dodge collaborate with law enforcement to provide customization of patrol vehicles for optimal performance and effectiveness. Partnering with highly reputable companies may also allow for pilot programs and testing over time, permitting the manufacturers to work with specific agencies in real-world scenarios as well as refine a custom product for law enforcement.
In his thesis at the Naval Postgraduate School, Jerry Davis of the Virginia State Police wrote, “As upper levels of autonomy are introduced, the role of a ‘driver’ evolves to that of a ‘user,’ and traffic/criminal enforcement codes must also reflect the expansion of that role.” [17] Currently, only Texas and Arizona allow the ticketing of driverless vehicles. Both states consider the owner of a driverless vehicle to be the operator who may be ticketed if the vehicle does not comply with motor vehicle laws. Will law enforcement in the future oversee driverless vehicle incidents, and if so, how will that look? The California DMV stated in July 2023 that autonomous technology is evolving, and it remains committed to a regulatory structure to reflect this development. [18] Law enforcement must play a role in the development of the governance of these vehicles in the future.
Advocating with lawmakers will be an integral piece to fully autonomous vehicle fleets for law enforcement. A framework that is clear for governing the use and ethical dilemmas officers might face will be crucial. Other frameworks must govern areas such as safety standards for the vehicles and guidelines for their operations. All these frameworks may help with public trust as well. Groups such as PERF and associations of police chiefs and sheriffs should play vital roles in this advocacy.
Conclusion
A fully autonomous police fleet combines the benefits of a driverless vehicle with innovative technology that can be mobile. This will be transformative for proactive policing strategies. Challenges such as cybersecurity, adapting strategies to keep up with the criminal element, positive legislation for governance and a framework for autonomous vehicles to operate under are the top concerns for manufacturers, police tech companies and law enforcement agencies. These must be thoroughly assessed and developed for AV success.
The future of proactive policing with driverless vehicles provides endless opportunities to marry technology with policing strategies. The opportunity to pursue a fully autonomous police fleet is right around the corner. Law enforcement agencies should prepare to be leaders in the development and expansion of a technology that will rule the roadways. Autonomous vehicle technology will greatly affect proactive policing strategies, and it is up to agencies to invest in it now.
References
- Placek M. Autonomous vehicles worldwide – statistics & facts. Statista. December 2023.
- California Department of Motor Vehicles. Autonomous vehicle testing.
- Mogg T. Dubai police to deploy driverless patrol cars with AI smarts. Digital Trends. October 2023.
- Black J. Autonomous vehicles: terrorist threat or security opportunity? RAND. January 2018.
- CBS News. Robotic dog rejoins New York Police Department: ‘Digidog is out of the pound.’ April 2023.
- Sisson P. Welcome to Chula Vista, where police drones respond to 911 calls. MIT Technology Review. February 2023.
- Heineke K, Heuss R, Kelkar A, Kellner M. What’s next for autonomous vehicles? McKinsey & Company. December 2021.
- Alvarez de Toledo Pinart E. Effects of autonomous vehicles on law enforcement. Medium. March 2019.
- Strom K. Research on the impact of technology on policing strategy in the 21st century, final report. Office of Justice Programs. September 2017.
- Maass D, Quintin C. New ALPR vulnerabilities prove mass surveillance is a public safety threat. Electronic Frontier Foundation. June 2024.
- Koon J. Autonomous vehicles: Not ready yet. Semiconductor Engineering. November 2023.
- National Institute of Justice. Autonomous vehicles: Expert panel lists top needs for law enforcement as the dawn of driverless roads inches closer. February 2021.
- Roberts SC, Zahabi M, Romero J. Law enforcement perspectives on police vehicle cybersecurity. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. October 2023.
- Tuptuk N. Crime enabled by autonomous vehicles. Dawes Centre for Future Crime at UCL. August 2022.
- Editorial. Crimes enabled by autonomous vehicles. Roboticsbiz.com. May 2023.
- Cowper TJ, Levin BH. Autonomous vehicles: How will they challenge law enforcement? FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. February 2018.
- Davis J. Autonomous and connected vehicles: A law enforcement primer. Homeland Security Affairs. December 2015.
- Shaban B, Bott M. Driverless cars immune from traffic tickets in California under current laws. NBC News. December 2023.
About the author
Bradley Lindblom has been serving in the San Pablo (California) Police Department since 2003. In 2021, he was promoted to Lieutenant and is currently responsible for overseeing patrol operations, jail staff, the K9 program, the SWAT team and Internal Affairs. He holds a Master’s Degree in Criminal Justice from the University of Phoenix and a Bachelor’s Degree in Public Administration from California State University, Chico. In his free time, Bradley enjoys coaching his children’s sports teams.